July/August 2006 Essay



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Over the last three years, many of the site's articles have been "interactive" in the sense that the reader can go back and forth between the essay text and various information-related links embedded with it. By clicking a link the reader can learn more about a particular subject being discussed, then return to the essay. (The links are included for information purposes only. No guarantees are made as to the accuracy of the materials presented on the sites, although every effort has been made to search out reliable and respected sources of information.) Footnotes, a list of links and a bibliography are also included at the end of the text for anyone wishing to learn more about the subject. The materials presented here are only a small fraction of what is available on this rapidly-changing aspect of the telecommunications industry. A glossary link has been provided as a reference for use as needed. Click here to reach the glossary. "Saying that VOIP is just another way to make a phone call is like saying Amazon.com was nothing more than another way to sell books."(n1). The modern telephone system has come a long way from the days of telephone operators sitting in front of switchboards manually connecting caller to caller. For a good part of the 100+ years since the telephone's invention, the system connecting the nation's telephones has been one of government-regulated monopoly carriers. Still, it is a system which by 1995 had brought telephone service to nearly 94 percent of U.S. households (n2), connecting them with each other and with the rest of the world. For more than a decade, however, the system has been facing a number of challenges to its traditional means of operation. The rise of wireless and PCS networks, the 1996 Telecommunications Act, the growth of the internet -- all have contributed to a changing landscape for those operating and using the nation's telephone system. Few services, however, have as great a potential to rearrange the telecommunications playing field as Voice Over Internet Protocol, or VOIP. VOIP (also referred to as Internet Telephony), is a means of transmitting voice calls as digital information over the packet-switched internet network as opposed to the circuit-switched telephone network. (n3) Depending on the service, VOIP calls can be made from computer to computer, from computer to telephone (or vice versa), and from phone to phone. By some estimates the number of people using VOIP could reach over 7 million in the U.S. by the end of this year, and VOIP could become a $2.1 billion industry. (n4) As with any new technology or technology-based service, however, especially one which challenges well-entrenched, established systems, market realities can change quickly. Legislation currently being debated in Congress, hearings before and decisions by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and litigation making its way through the nation's courts will all serve to shape the future of VOIP in the months and years ahead. This essay will present basic information about how VOIP works, examine its place amid current telecommunications regulations and the existing telephone system, and take a look at a few of the market realities faced by those wishing to subscribe to VOIP services today. THE IP IN VOIP Digitized video, data and voice can all be sent over the internet. In the case of a VOIP call, the speaker's voice (analog signal) is converted into a digital transmission of a series of "packets" of 1s and 0s, routed across the internet, then reassembled and converted back to voice at the receiver's end. "To work effectively, all forms of content delivered over the internet rely on an application - such as a web browser, media player or instant messaging system [to decode information received into images, sounds or data] - as well as the internet's logical layer, which is comprised of software standards such as the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)." (n5) One of the reasons the internet works on such a large scale is because of its open architecture and the "universal agreement on the non-proprietary protocols to be used to translate information into 1s and 0s and back again." (n6) The TCP/IP protocols are, "in essence, the set of rules governing [and ensuring] . . . the efficient transmission of . . . data . . . across the internet. The 'TCP' in TCP/IP governs the assembly and reassembly of the packets at each end (including checking for errors such as missing packets), while the 'IP' is responsible for moving packets of data from one node to another." (n7). The following link, www.w3schools.com/tcpip/default.asp, will take you to further information about TCP/IP. CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING VOIP calls are partly distinguished from regular telephone calls by the manner in which the data travels over a network from source to destination. "A network is defined by its switches (or routers, as they are typically called in the internet world). . . Although the distinction can blur at the margins, there are two basic kinds of switches -- circuit switches and packet switches -- that are used, respectively, in conventional voice networks and more advanced networks, including the internet." (n8) As was stated earlier, VOIP calls are sent as digital data packets over the packet-switched internet instead of being routed through the circuit-switched telephone network. When one makes a call using plain old telephone service (POTS) over the Public Switched Telephony Network (PSTN), resources (i.e. circuits) are typically "reserved along the path between both parties for the entire duration of the call, even if the amount of information being transferred does not require the full bandwith of the facilities." (n9) Think back for a second to the operator sitting at a switchboard physically connecting Caller A to Caller B so the two parties can hold a conversation. Though this function has long since been automated, the idea is the same: a dedicated circuit is created and stays open for the duration of the call between the two parties. (For a more detailed discussion of how phones work, visit http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm.) In contrast, data in IP networks is divided into packets "which are individually addressed and then transmitted over a series of physical networks which may be comprised of copper, fiber, coaxial cable or wireless facilities. When the packets are transmitted via IP between two points, the network does not establish a permanent or exclusive path between the two points. Instead, routers read packet addresses individually and decide . . . which route to use for each packet." (n10) The packets do not necessarily have to travel in order, for they are reassembled in proper order via the TCP protocol at their destination. (A flash animation illustrating the basics of packet switching can be found at www.pbs.org/opb/nerds2.0.1/geek_glossary/packet_switching_flash.html. However, you may wish to copy the address and paste it into a new window to view it since you might not be able to return to the essay via the "back" arrow once the animation is finished. Also, an additional explanation of how VOIP differs from traditional telephony can be found at http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/ip-telephony1.htm.) Photograph "Morning in Venice" © 1984 Dorothy A. Birsic TYPES OF VOIP Most forms of VOIP require broadband (i.e. cable or DSL) internet connections as distinguished from dial-up modems. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defines the higher-speed internet connections more commonly referred to as "broadband" as "services and facilities with speeds of over 200 kilobytes per second (kbps) in at least one direction." (n11) There are three basic types of VOIP, and each is technologically distinct from the other. These divisions were first delineated by the FCC (See 13 FCC Record 11,501 (1998), "Universal Service Report," also referred to as the "Stevens Report") and have been used generally in distinguishing telecommunications services from information services since then. 1) Computer-to-Computer Telephony: This is a software-based form of VOIP through which users can "bypass domestic and international long distance toll and access fees by leveraging their existing . . . connection to the internet." (n12) The call, once made, travels via a person's ISP to the public internet, then through the receiver's ISP to his/her computer. Probably the most widely-recognized company offering this type of service is Skype (www.skype.com). After downloading and installing free Skype software (and purchasing an accessory or two such as a headset), a person can make free computer-to-computer calls to anyone with the Skype software installed on their own computer system. Skype, started by the creators of the file-sharing system Kazaa (n13), is currently said to have over 60 million users worldwide. (n14) The company was acquired last year by EBay for more than $2 billion. (n15) Skype functions in a manner similar to the Instant Messaging systems of companies like AOL. 2) Computer-to-Telephone (or vice-versa) Telephony: With this type of VOIP call, the call "typically terminates on the PSTN . . . and 2) can originate through a . . . telephone handset [and/or analong telephone adapter (ATA)] connected to a customer's cable or DSL modem rather than [directly] through a PC." (n16) This type of call bypasses long distance toll charges by travelling initially through the public internet, and eventually is transferred via ISP to the PSTN in the terminating market and ends at the recipient's telephone. One of the leading providers of this type of service is a company called Vonage (www.vonage.com). Vonage, like many other companies in the VOIP market, sells its services as discount-priced phone calling. For example, the company offers an unlimited calling plan to anywhere in the U.S., Canada or Puerto Rico for $24.99 per month. (n17). The company is reported as having 1.6 million activated broadband subscribers lines as of April 1, 2006, with a 12-month subscriber line growth at 12/31/05 of 225%. (n18) 3) Telephone-to-Telephone VOIP and VOIP over Cable: As of last year, nearly every major cable operator had launched or stated an intention to launch VOIP [as a part of their services]. (n19). Cable VOIP is different from both the two services listed above in that "upon leaving the cable network, . . . [a call] is handed off at the earliest possible point to the PSTN. Cable's [early] versions of VOIP did not travel via the internet. . . The easiest approach for cable telephony providers today . . . is to partner with [local carriers] for interconnection to the long distance and incumbent local networks. . . However, longer term, as the cable companies develop critical mass in their telephony business . . . [they] will likely build ([or] lease) private networks for carrying their traffic. Indeed, Cox has already made this leap . . . and now transports its own traffic, and even terminates on-network traffic (from one Cox customer to another) without interconnection." (n20) MARKET AND REGULATORY CHALLENGES FOR VOIP "This case illustrates the impact of emerging technologies evolving ahead of the regulatory scheme intended to address them." Summary, Vonage Holdings Corporation v. Minnesota Public Utilities Commission (n21). Although VOIP may seem relatively simple from a user's perspective, from a regulatory standpoint it occupies a much more complex position. In order to understand the conundrum presented by VOIP and other IP-related services, one must first look at how these technologies fit into the post-1996 Telecommunications Act regulatory scheme. At the time when Congress was debating the landmark provisions of the 1996 Act, "the telecommunications marketplace was virtually dominated by the Bell companies who provided local voice services over traditional circuit-switched copper networks, and several carriers who provided long distance services. Cconsequently much of the debate focused on the local and long distance markets" (n22) as they existed then. Clear distinctions were also made between "telecommunications carriers and service providers" and "information service providers." The distinctions were and are important because how a provider is characterized "significantly affects its regulatory treatment. A telecommunications carrier is subject to the full panoply of common carrier regulations and must contribute to universal service. A provider of telecommunications (one not offering telecommunications on a common carrier basis) may have to contribute to universal service if . . . it is in the public interest to do so. And, finally, an information service provider is neither subject to regulation nor . . . required to contribute to universal service." (n23) The distinctions were made in part to free emerging internet-based services and industries from burdensome regulations that might stifle innovation and competition. Those once-clear distinctions have been blurred, however, by services such as VOIP which do not fit neatly into any of them. Could VOIP be regulated as a telecommunications service? Not really. "The regulatory structure of telecommunications cannot by physically adapted to VOIP because telecommunications regulations are based on location and VOIP transcends location." (n24) Think for a second of your (landline) phone bill. Calls are billed by your local or long distance carrier based on their starting point and ending point (local or long distance) and duration (time in which the call is carried by the dedicated circuit). A service like VOIP "challenges the key assumptions on which . . . regulation of [communications] networks are predicated: Packets routed across a global network with multiple access points defy jurisdictional boundaries." (n25) Should VOIP then be classified as strictly an information service, the only other category defined in the 1996 Act? "If this approach is pursued, social issues, like universal service and access to persons with disabilities, and security issues, like wire-tapping and 911 access, would be neglected. Where telecommunications regulation has evolved to address and pay for these issues, information services have not. Therefore, if VOIP is defined as an information service, the . . . technology would become an increasing threat to important consumer interests as its usage grows." (n26) Two of those issues, universal service and law enforcement access under the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) were addressed by the FCC and the courts earlier this year. Photograph "Countryside Crafts Shop, Australia" © 1985 Dorothy A. Birsic Universal Access The Universal Access Pool is "a fund to which telephone operators contribute for the purpose of defraying costs associated with rural telephony service. Rural telephone service providers tap into the pool to cover expenses under appropriate and stringent rules so that their customers can have telephone service and pricing comparable to urban service." (n27) The concept "dates back more than 70 years to a time when stringing wires together to bring telephone service to loosely populated areas was expensive." (n28) VOIP treatment has become an issue in regard to universal service because state regulators fear that "as currently priced and regulated, [VOIP] threatens the source of funding for universal service programs." (n29) Last month the FCC voted to require internet telephone companies to pay into the fund, and "subscribers of VOIP services such as Vonage will be hit with a 7% fee because the FCC assumes most of their calls are long distance. . . The standard charge for cell phone subscribers would [also] rise to 4% from 3.1%." (n30) Press reports indicate that the steps are temporary and that a broad reform of the fee system is planned." (n31) Law Enforcement Access The ability for law enforcement officials to gain access to broadband network and VOIP providers to combat crime and support homeland security has also been an important issue for providers of internet telephone services. Last month the "U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia upheld [a 2004 FCC ruling] saying interconnected VOIP providers must allow wiretapping by May 14, 2007." (n32) The initial FCC ruling had been appealed by several group "saying it could introduce security vulnerabilities into VOIP services and drive up costs for customers." (n33) The ruling will apply to facilities-based broadband internet access providers and interconnected VOIP providers and "will help achieve CALEA compliance, particularly for packet-mode technologies." (n34). * * * These examples are only a few of the many actions and debates currently taking place concerning the appropriate regulatory treatment for IP-enabled services such as VOIP. As was stated earlier, actions by Congress and the FCC later this year and in the years ahead, and decisions pending in several court cases across the U.S., will serve to shape the VOIP marketplace for both providers and users of the services in the near future. While some of these actions may not directly affect consumers at this time, there are a few additional aspects of VOIP services of which consumers should be aware. CONSUMER CAVEATS Anyone considering replacing traditional telephone service with VOIP should also be aware of a few limitations associated with the technology. Given the rapid pace of change in the industry and the range of services provided, it is always best to check with specific companies as to the details of the services they offer. However, two of the most significant limitations of VOIP have to do with power outages and 911 (emergency) services. Unless a person maintains an uninterruptible power supply connected to his or her computer, the computer will generally not work during a power outage. Since many VOIP services originate from computers, some VOIP users may not have telephone access during a power outage. Emergency services also have presented a particular challenge for both VOIP providers and those needing to gain access to the 911 system. The FCC has taken steps to remedy the situation by imposing E911 obligations on providers of "interconnected" VOIP services, but it is always best to check with individual companies to obtain information on their 911 service policies. The FCC Consumer Advisory on VOIP and 911 service can be viewed at www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacs/voip911.pdf. Other FCC sites for VOIP include: FCC VOIP Home page - www.fcc.gov/voip FCC VOIP Consumer Fact Sheet - www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/voip.html FCC VOIP E911 Website - www.voip911.gov Recent reports in the press indicate mixed experiences for customer of VOIP services. Although there are "indications that the services continue to grow nationwide and that many customers like their service, . . . some of the more common complaints include dropped calls, poor sound quality, problems transferring [existing] phone numbers, . . . and hidden fees." (n35) The March 7, 2006 issue of PC Magazine (www.pcmag.com) includes a comprehensive table of eleven VOIP service providers, the features they offer and their service charges. The story's writer, Cade Metz, concludes about VOIP that "Even if you do your homework and choose the path that's right for you, chances are you'll still experience a problem or two. But in the end . . . you'll cut a hefty chunk from your monthly phone bill." (n36) * * * VOIP is but one of the many nascent IP-enabled technologies changing the face of modern telecommunications. While it is impossible to say what shape VOIP services will take five or ten years from now, VOIP is undoubtedly one of the many new technologies which will remain on the horizon in an increasingly digitized and interconnected world. * * * FOOTNOTES - The following are the footnotes indicated in the text in parentheses with the letter "n" and a number. If you click the asterisk at the end of the footnote, it will take you back to the paragraph where you left off. n1 - Testimony of Jeffrey J. Carlisle in "VOIP Services: Will the Technology Disrupt the Industry or Will Regulation Disrupt the Technology?," hearing before the Subcommittee om Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 108th Congress, Second Session, July 7, 2004, Serial No. 109-104, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2004, p. 40 () n2 - U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.: 2006 (125th Edition). Washington D. C., 2005, Table 1117, p. 737 () n3 - Hundt Reed E. and Rosston, Gregory L. "Communications Policy for 2006 and Beyond," 58 Federal Communications Law Journal 1, January 2006, p. 26 () n4 - Tate, Deborah Taylor (FCC Commissioner), closing remarks, Accenture Global Convergence Forum 2006, May 12, 2006, viewed June 2006 at http://hraunfross.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-265423A1.pdf, p. 5 () n5 - Weiser, Philip J., "Toward a Next Generation Regulatory Strategy," 35 Loyola University of Chicago Law Journal 41, Vol. 35, No. 1, Fall 2003, p. 44 () n6 - Neuchterlein, Jonathan E. and Weiser, Philip J. Digital Crossroads: American Telecommunications Policy in the Internet Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005, p. 123 () n7 - Ibid. () n8 - Ibid., p. 40 () n9 - Federal Communications Commission, "In the Matter of IP-Enabled Services: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," WC Docket No. 04-36, 19 FCC Record 4863, March 10 - 19, 2004, p. 4869 () n10* - Ibid., pp. 4869-70 () n11* - Federal Communications Commission, "In the Matter of Local Competition and Broadband Reporting," Report and Order, CC Docket No. 99 - 301, 15 FCC Record 7717, 7730 (2000), in National Telecommunications and Information Administration, A Nation Online: Entering the Broadband Age, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, September 2004, p. 3 () n12* - Bernstein Research, "Voice Over IP: Ripple or Tidal Wave?", Introduction, in "Competition in the Communications Marketplace: How Technology is Changing the Structure of the Industry," hearing before the Subcommittee om Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 109th Congress, First Session, March 2, 2005, Serial No. 109-13, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2005, p. 234 () n13* - Lashinsky, Adam and Roth, Daniel, "EBay and Skype: The Net's New Odd Couple," Fortune, Vol. 152, No. 7, October 3, 2005, p. 26 () n14* - Reinhardt, Andy, "Getting Skittish About Skype," Business Week, Issue #3961, November 28, 2005, p. 47 () n15* - Hibbard, Justin, Reinhardt, Andy and Lowry, Tom, "Skype: How a Startup Harnessed the Hoopla," Business Week, Issue #3952, September 26, 2005, p. 35 () n16* - Bernstein Research, "Voice Over IP: Ripple or Tidal Wave?", hearing, p. 234 () n17* - "Vonage: The Broadband Company," company brochure, New Jersey: Vonage Marketing, Inc. 2005, front/back cover () n18* - "Vonage Holdings NYSE-VG," in Value Line, Vol. LXI, No. 44, Issue 5, (pp. 694-820), June 30, 2006, p. 744 () n19* - Bernstein Research, "Voice Over IP: Ripple or Tidal Wave?", hearing, p. 235 () n20* - Ibid., pp. 235-236 () n21* - Summary, Vonage Holdings Corporation v. Minnesota Public Utilities, 290 F. Supp 2nd 993, (D Minn 2003), p. 994 () n22* - Statement of Congressman Fred Upton in "How Internet Protocol-Enabled Services are Changing the Face of Communications: A View From Technology Companies," hearing before the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 109th Congress, 1st Session, February 9, 2005, Serial No. 109-12, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2005, p. 2 () n23* - Separate Statement of Commissioner Michael K. Powell, Concurring, Re: Report to Congress, Federal-State Joint Board on Universal Service (CC Docket No. 96-45), 13 FCC Record 11622-29 (1998), pp. 11622-23 () n24* - DuFour, R. Alex, "Voice Over Internet Protocol: Ending Uncertainty and Promoting Innovation Through A Regulatory Framework," 13 CommLaw Conspectus 471 (2005), p. 479 () n25* - FCC, Matter of IP-Enabled Services, p. 4867 () n26* - DuFour, R. Alex, p. 480 () n27* - Abe, George, Residential Broadband, Indianapolis, IN: MacMillan Technical Publishing, 1997, p. 62() n28* - "Bad Subsidy Call," Wall Street Journal, June 23, 2006, p. A10 () n29* - Hundt and Rosston, p. 26 () n30* - Davidson, Paul, "FCC Raises Some Fees on Wireless, Internet-Based Phone Calls," USA Today, June 22, 2006, p. (Money) 4b () n31* - Ibid. () n32* - Federal Communications Commission, "FCC Adopts Order to Enable Law Enforcement to Access Certain Broadband and VOIP Providers," news release viewed June 2006 at http://hraunfross.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-265221A1.pdf, p. 1 () n33* - Gross, Grant, "Could Your VOIP Phone Be Wiretapped?" PCWorld.com, June 9, 2006, printable article viewed July 10, 2006, at www.pcworld.com/resource/printable/article/0,aid,126047,00.asp () n34* - FCC News Release (see #32), p. 1 () n35* - Spring, Tom, "Web Phone Woes," PC World, Vol. 24, No. 8, August 2006, p. 20 () n36* - Metz, Cade, "Ditch Your Phone Company?" PC Magaine, Vol. 25, No. 4, March 7, 2006, p. 130 () LINKS INCLUDED IN ESSAY* Glossary - www.lucent.com/search/glossary/glossary.html. ( This link is no longer valid, and no replacement has been found.) TCP/IP Information - www.w3schools.com/tcpip/default.asp How Phones Work - http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm. ( For this link and the similar one below, you will be redirected to www.pewtrusts.org/our_work_detail.aspx?id=442.) Flash Animation - Packet Switching - www.pbs.org/opb/nerds2.0.1/geek_glossary/packet_switching_flash.html VOIP vs. Traditional Telephony - http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/ip-telephony.htm. Skype (company) - www.skype.com Vonage (company) - www.vonage.com FCC Consumer Advisory on VOIP and 911 Services - www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/voip911.pdf FCC VOIP Home Page - www.fcc.gov/voip FCC VOIP Consumer Fact Sheet - www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/voip.html FCC VOIP E911 Website - www.voip911.gov PC Magazine - www.pcmag.com BIBLIOGRAPHY - The following is the bibliography for the July/August 2006 essay on Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP). 2004 Annual Report, Nortel Networks Corporation 2004, 2005 Annual Reports, Lucent Technologies 2005 Annual Report, Cisco Systems, Inc. Abe, George, Residential Broadband, Indianapolis, IN: MacMillan Technical Publishing, 1997. "Bad Subsidy Call," Wall Street Journal, June 23, 2006, p. A10 Bernstein Research, "Voice Over IP: Ripple or Tidal Wave?", Introduction, in "Competition in the Communications Marketplace: How Technology is Changing the Structure of the Industry," hearing before the Subcommittee om Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 109th Congress, First Session, March 2, 2005, Serial No. 109-13, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2005, pp. 231 - 236. Carlisle, Jeffrey J., Testimony in "VOIP Services: Will the Technology Disrupt the Industry or Will Regulation Disrupt the Technology?," hearing before the Subcommittee om Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 108th Congress, Second Session, July 7, 2004, Serial No. 109-104, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2004, pp. 40 - 50. Davidson, Paul, "FCC Raises Service Fees on Wireless, Internet-Based Phone Calls," USA Today, June 22, 2006, p. (Money) 4b DuFour, R. Alex, "Voice Over Internet Protocol: Ending Uncertainty and Promoting Innovation Through A Regulatory Framework," 13 CommLaw Conspectus 471 (2005), pp. 471 - 508. Federal Communications Commission, "FCC Adopts Order to Enable Law Enforcement to Access Certain Broadband and VOIP Providers," news release viewed June 2006 at http://hraunfross.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-265221A1.pdf Federal Communications Commission, "In the Matter of IP-Enabled Services: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," WC Docket No. 04-36, 19 FCC Record 4863, March 10 - 19, 2004, pp. 4863 - 4918. Federal Communications Commission, "In the Matter of Local Competition and Broadband Reporting," Report and Order, CC Docket No. 99 - 301, 15 FCC Record 7717, 7730 (2000), as cited in National Telecommunications and Information Administration, A Nation Online: Entering the Broadband Age, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, September 2004 Federal Communications Commission, Industry Analysis and Technology Division, Wireline Competition Bureau, High Speed Services for Internet Access, Status as of June 30, 2005, viewed May 2006 at http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-264744A1.pdf. Also available at www.fcc.gov/wcb/stats. Federal Communications Commission, Industry Analysis and Technology Division, Wireline Competition Bureau, Local Telephone Competition, Status as of June 30, 2005, viewed May 2006 at http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-264742A1.pdf. Also available at www.fcc.gov/wcb/stats. Ferguson, Charles H. The Broadband Problem: Anatomy of a Market Failure and a Policy Dilemma. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2004 Gross, Grant, "Could Your VOIP Phone Be Wiretapped?" PCWorld.com, June 9, 2006, printable article viewed July 10, 2006, at www.pcworld.com/resource/printable/article/0,aid,126047,00.asp Hibbard, Justin, Reinhardt, Andy and Lowry, Tom, "Skype: How a Startup Harnessed the Hoopla," Business Week, Issue #3952, September 26, 2005, p. 35 Hundt Reed E. and Rosston, Gregory L. "Communications Policy for 2006 and Beyond," 58 Federal Communications Law Journal 1, January 2006, pp. 1 - 35 "How Internet Protocol-Enables Services are Changing the Face of Communications: A Look at the Voice Marketplace", Hearing before the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 109th Congress, 1st Session, March 16, 2005, Serial Number 109-4, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2005. "How Internet Protocol-Enables Services are Changing the Face of Communications: A View From Government Officials", Hearing before the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 109th Congress, 1st Session, April 27, 2005, Serial Number 109-44, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2005. Lashinsky, Adam and Roth, Daniel, "EBay and Skype: The Net's New Odd Couple," Fortune, Vol. 152, No. 7, October 3, 2005, p. 26 Metz, Cade, "Ditch Your Phone Company?" PC Magaine, Vol. 25, No. 4, March 7, 2006, pp. 118 - 130. Neuchterlein, Jonathan E. and Weiser, Philip J. Digital Crossroads: American Telecommunications Policy in the Internet Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005 Powell, Michael K., Commissioner, Separate Statement, Concurring, Re: Report to Congress, Federal-State Joint Board on Universal Service (CC Docket No. 96-45), 13 FCC Record 11622-29 (1998), pp. 11622-29 Reinhardt, Andy, "Getting Skittish About Skype," Business Week, Issue #3961, November 28, 2005, p. 47 Spring, Tom, "Web Phone Woes," PC World, Vol. 24, No. 8, August 2006, pp. 18 - 20. Tate, Deborah Taylor (FCC Commissioner), closing remarks, Accenture Global Convergence Forum 2006, May 12, 2006, viewed June 2006 at http://hraunfross.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-265423A1.pdf Upton, Fred,Statement in "How Internet Protocol-Enabled Services are Changing the Face of Communications: A View From Technology Companies," hearing before the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, 109th Congress, 1st Session, February 9, 2005, Serial No. 109-12, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2005 pp. 1 - 3. United States Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.: 2006 (125th Edition). Washington D. C., 2005, Table 1117, p. 737 Vonage Holdings Corporation v. Minnesota Public Utilities, Summary, 290 F. Supp 2nd 993, (D Minn 2003) "Vonage Holdings NYSE-VG," in Value Line, Vol. LXI, No. 44, Issue 5, (pp. 694-820), June 30, 2006, p. 744 "Vonage: The Broadband Company," company brochure, New Jersey: Vonage Marketing, Inc. 2005, front/back cover Weiser, Philip J., "Toward a Next Generation Regulatory Strategy," 35 Loyola University of Chicago Law Journal 41, Vol. 35, No. 1, Fall 2003, pp. 41 - 85. To return to the top of the page, click here. To return to the essay archives, click here. Follow www.dorothyswebsite.org on TWITTER! "Like" www.dorothyswebsite.org on FACEBOOK! Home \| Essays \| Poetry \| Free Concerts \| Links \| 2015 Extras \| About the Site Featured Artists \| 2015 Website Special Guests \| News

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