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September 2014 Essay

An "Illuminating" Subject . . . Optics and Photonics, Part II

    With the first stop of this years World's Fair Express in Paris, also known as the City of Light, it seemed fitting to devote a segment of the 2014 essay section to the subject of light. The August and September essays will be a two-part discussion of some of the many aspects of light - from basic scientific principles to some of the many products and technologies resulting from the application of those principles. Given that this is the summer of "S.T.E.A.M" as well, the discussion will include a focus not only on the scientific and technological aspects but also light as related to art, including photography (the word photography is derived from Greek words meaning "light" and "to draw or to write.") The pieces are not written for experts in the field (though experts are more than welcome to forward comments if they feel that any vital information has been overlooked). They are written, however, with the hope that any of the many students heading back to class over the next month or so who come across the page may find the subject interesting enough to pursue further research on their own.

    As with past editions, the essay also is "interactive." Links to other websites or videos which expand upon the topics being presented are embedded at various points in the article. By clicking the links viewers can read or see more about the particular topic being discussed, then return to the essay. Footnotes and a bibliography also are included at the end for anyone wishing to learn more about the subject(s) discussed. The materials represented here are only a small fraction of what is available on the subject matter.

     This summer's "World's Fair Express" may have begun in the City of Light, its path leading up to the celebration of the next World Expo in Milan in 2015, but as it turns out, 2015 will be a big year for light as well. Why? Not only will 2015 be the Einstein Centenary, celebrating Einstein's Theory of Relativity, but it also will be what the United Nations has designated as "The International Year of Light and Light-Based Technologies." Events will kick off in January of 2015 in - where else but Paris?! According to the International Year of Light website (www.light2015.org), the initiative will "highlight to the citizens of the world the importance of light and optical technologies in their lives, for their futures, and for the development of society. It is a unique opportunity to inspire, educate and connect on a global scale." ((n1)) A link to the short video introducing the year is included below, as presented by the International Society for Optics and Photonics (SPIE, www.spie.org).

     In just over a minute, the video above was able to show only a small number of the ways light and light-based technologies affect people's lives: through agriculture, transportation, telecommunications, computers/visual displays, lasers, microscopes, space exploration, medicine, manufacturing and solar energy, to name a few. The International Year of Light may be a global initiative, but the importance of optics and photonics has been stressed here in the U.S. as well. In 2012 the National Research Council of the National Academies released a report entitled Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation (available for download at www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13491). From that report came the recommendation for forming an umbrella group in the U.S. to identify priority areas for U.S. optics/photonics funding and investment, and so the National Photonics Initiative (www.lightourfuture.org) was created. Last year the Initiative presented a white paper detailing five key priority areas for photonics research and funding. Those five areas are energy, health and medicine, information technology and communications, manufacturing and defense/national security. The report, "Lighting the Path to a Competitive Secure Future," can be downloaded via the links at www.lightourfuture.org.

     What makes optics and photonics so difficult to discuss in a forum such as this is the incredible number of branches within the field of what might be considered "light-based technologies." Optics was defined in the first part of this two-part series as "related fields of science and engineering encompassing the physical phenomena and technologies associated with the generation, transmission, manipulation, detection and utilization of light (n2), and photonics is defined here as "the science and technology of generating, controlling and detecting photons, which are particles of light." (n3) While something like photovoltaic (solar) panels may be obvious and easy to understand, the role of other technologies in the field may be more obscure or difficult to understand since they tend to be "enabling technologies," or components within broader systems. This second part of the two-part series will begin the discussion of optics and photonics by returning to two separate technologies which are familiar to everyone but which have come to be entwined in the digital age, cameras and cell phones.

Optics and Photonics - Back to the Camera

     Earliest photographs began as a challenge to permanently capture the images viewed inside a dark chamber, or camera obscura, (n4) a room or darkened space through which a pinhole of light projected an image from outside onto a wall or other surface. The camera obscura is "known to have been used extensively in the 16th and 17th centuries by artists and geographers interested in capturing the subtleties of light in landscapes and interior scenes." (n5) That camera obscura can be replicated today as a pinhole camera, a box or other enclosed item through which a pinhole of light is allowed to enter and leave an image on film or a photographic plate inside. It is the simplest form of photography, and one which this site's summer Guest Photographer used to create the world's largest pinhole photograph, "The Great Picture."

     In 2006, photographer Mark Chamberlain and a team of five other photographers created a 31-foot high by 107-foot wide black-and-white gelatin silver photograph of the abandoned Marine Corps Air Station El Toro in Southern California. They "transformed [an] abandoned F/A-18 fighter jet hangar into a gigantic pinhole camera by darkening and sealing the interior from outside light. A pinhole just under a quarter-inch in diameter was centered between the metal hangar doors to serve as the camera's aperture . . . [T]his particular pinhole camera was recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world’s largest," (n6) and the picture shows the air station's control tower, other structures and runways with the San Joaquin Hills in the background. The photograph, shown below, will be on display at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chatilly, Virginia, through November. To learn how to construct and use a simple pinhole camera, visit www.kodak.com/ek/US/en/Pinhole_Camera.htm.

"The Great Picture" hanging in its pinhole camera hangar. "The Great Picture" will be on view at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Virginia through November 2014. Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Air and Space Museum press photos, Image Number WEB13918-2014. Photo by Robert Johnson.

     As photography progressed from the late 1800s to about the 1970s or 1980s, it was a story of ongoing development of optical elements, such as lenses, chemical elements, such as film and developing processes, and mechanical elements, such as still and motion picture cameras. But with the advent of digital photography, the entire photographic process changed. Light, of course, remained constant. Film cameras recorded images by exposing film to light, and that film was later developed using chemical processes. Adjustments such as enlargements or retouching generally were done in the darkroom. Digital cameras, however, use light sensors to record information from outside the camera to a medium such as a memory card. Adjustments may be made on a computer using imaging software. (n7) In terms of capturing light and creating images, semiconductor light sensors are at the core of digital photography. The sensors can be compared to memory chips in computers, "but whereas memory chips employ row upon row of transistors to record data, . . . sensors contain rows of photodiodes coupled with individual amplifiers to amplify the electrial signal from the photodiodes." (n8) Early semiconductor light sensors were referred to as CCDs; the new generation of sensors are called CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensors. Read more about CMOS sensors as they are used in Canon cameras at www.canon.com/technology/s_labo/light/003/05.html, and find additional information from Canon on other optical elements of cameras (lenses, lens coatings, etc.) at www.canon.com/technology/s_labo/light/index.html.

     As digital photography has continued to develop technologically, it also has expanded in many ways. Photographs are now produced regularly from telescopes and light microscopes. Those interested in images from space might wish to view the Astronomy Picture of the Day at www.apod.nasa.gov/apod, while those interested in large views of the very small might wish to visit the Olympus Bioscapes site at www.olympusbioscapes.com. Olympus Bioscapes is considered to be the world's foremost showcase for images and movies of life sciences subjects captured through light microscopes (and this year's photo competition will accept entries through September 30). In 2011, the first light field (also called plenoptic) camera available to the public was introduced by the company Lytro (www.lytro.com), and the camera was named one of Time Magazines "Best Inventions" in its 2012 issue. The camera uses a combination of "micro-lenses over [a] sensor . . . to not only record the color and intensity of light, but also the direction." (n9) As a result, by using the company's software, the focus of a photograph may be adjusted on the computer after the photograph is taken, thereby "replacing much of a camera's precision mechanics with software." (n10) This year the company released a newer, more DSLR-like version of the camera, and it has been said that the company "is moving toward a future wherein light-field photography, video, 3-D and virtual reality will all be converging." (n11) A video of how light field photography works can be viewed on the Lytro website.

     Before turning to the camera of the "selfie" generation and an introduction to cell phones and fiber optics, it may be useful to understand photons from the perspective of a camera which is able to "see" around corners. The speed of light is constant and known, and photons are individual particles of light. The video shows how scientists at the MIT Media Lab reconstruct an object hidden behind a wall using scattered laser light.

Of "Selfies" and Cell Phones

     In 1985, there were about 340,000 cellular subscribers in the U.S. (n12) By 2010, that number was over 300 million. (n13) Given the growth in the cellular communications industry, it should come as no surprise that the cellphone camera has become the most ubiquitous camera in the world. With phone in hand, anyone can take a picture at any time - whether of themselves or the world around them. With the the increase in the number of those cameras has come a cottage industry of cellphone camera accessories - everything from lenses and flash attachments to tripods and shutter release remotes (and even bicycle mounts). But with the overall growth in the cellular telecommunications industry, however, has come the demand for something more -- the demand not only for voice transmission but also transmission of text, data, images and video. It may not be difficult to understand the concept of optics by taking a "selfie," but it may be more difficult to comprehend the statement that "without optics the Internet as we know it would not exist." (n14).

     Today "optics has become the way by which most information is sent over nearly all the distance it travels." (n15) In the last ten years, "advances in optical fiber communications have permitted a nearly 100-fold increase in the amount of information that can be transmitted from place to place," (n16) and "optics is . . . the only technology with the physical headroom to keep up with [the] exponentially growing demand for communicating information." (n17). But what is this demand and how does it relate to the device you are holding in your hand? First, the demand (and you might need the chart below to comprehend some of the numbers).

     Each year in June Cisco Systems presents the report of its Visual Networking Index (VNI), an ongoing initiative which includes a forecast of global IP traffic and the implications of that growth for service providers. This year's document, which can be downloaded at www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/VNI_Hyperconnectivity_WP.html, is titled The Zettabyte Era: Trends and Analysis. Some of the many findings and forecasts include:

•  Annual global IP traffic will pass the zettabyte (1000 exabyte) threshold by the end of 2016 and will reach 1.6 zettabytes per year by 2016
•  Global IP traffic has increased fivefold over the past 5 years and will increase threefold over the next 5 years
•  Over half of all IP traffic will originate with non-PC devices by 2018. In 2013, only 33 percent of total IP traffic originated with non-PC devices, but by 2018 the non-PC share of total IP traffic will grow to 57 percent.
•  Global Internet traffic in 2018 will be equivalent to 64 times the volume of the entire global Internet in 2005
•  The number of devices connected to IP networks will be nearly twice as high as the global population by 2018
•  IP traffic is growing fastest in the Middle East and Africa. (n18)

Source: Cisco Visual Networking Index (VNI): Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast, 2013 - 2018, p. 2, Cisco Systems, Inc., San Jose, California, February 2014. Available online at www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/VNI-Forecast_QA.pdf, or at www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/VNI-Forecast_QA.html/index.html.

     So how are you and your cellphone (or other internet-connected device) part of these numbers, and what does that have to do with optics? Using a call made from a cell phone, for example, it may be a bit counterintuitive to think of it as using light. However, radio waves, as shown in the chart included with the first part of the essay, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. A cell phone connects to the nearest cell tower using a wireless radio connection. From there, "that radio signal is converted to an optical data stream and sent along the fiber optic network across the planet. [In the case of an internet data search], the data search itself, such as through Google, relies on data centers in which clusters of co-located computers talk to each other through hign-capacity optical cables [and lasers] . . . There can be as many as a million lasers in a given data center." (n19) Fiber optic cables, or cables with a protected glass core through which light travels, now span the globe. But optical transmission also is useful at shorter distances for two reasons. "First, optics can carry information at much higher density than is possible in electrical wires, as is essential for future scaling of interconnect capacity. Second, optics can fundamentally save energy in interconnects because it completely avoids the need for charging wires . . . [a] dominant source of energy dissipation in electrical interconnects." (n20) Those wanting to learn more about cell phones and fiber optics may wish to view either or both of the following tutorials before continuing: for cell phones - www.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone.htm, and for fiber optics, www.howstuffworks.com/fiber-optic.htm. Industry information may be found through The Fiber Optic Association (www.thefoa.org). Below is a very concise 5-minute video called "Fiber 101," a tutorial from Corning detailing the basics of optical fiber (and if that is something of interest, continue on to www.youtube.com/watch?v=6CqT4DuAVxs to see how fiber optic cable is made).

     These examples hopefully will have provided at least a basic introduction to optics and photonics in the context of information technology and telecommunications. However, given that the universe of "light-based" technologies is so immense, it will be impossible to include all within this essay. The remainder of the article will focus on a few other technologies in the remaining four priority areas outlined in the National Photonics Initiative white paper - energy, health/medicine, manufacturing and defense/national security - and conclude with additional information related to arts and entertainment.

Optics/Photonics and Energy

     Much of the information available concerning optics/photonics and energy tends to deal with solar energy/photovotaics and lighting, particularly LED lighting. Since LED and other lighting was discussed in a consumer context in the August 2014 article, further information will not be included here. The site's July 2010 and August 2010 essays (located in the Essay Archives) also offered basic information on photovoltaic technology and solar energy in California. Since 2010, the largest solar development in the Southern California area was last year's opening of the Ivanpah solar power project in Ivanpah Dry Lake, CA (visible in the distance off the 15 Freeway en route from Los Angeles to Las Vegas). At Ivanpah, "over 300,000 software-controlled mirrors track the sun in two dimensions and reflect the sunlight to boilers that sit atop three 459-foot tall towers. When the concentrated sunlight strikes the boilers' pipes, it heats the water to create superheated steam. This high-temperature steam is then piped from the boiler to a standard turbine where electricity is generated. From [there] transmission lines carry the power to homes and businesses." (n21) The plant generates about 377 net MW of energy and serves about 140,000 homes annually in PG&E and Southern California Edison customer areas. (n22) To learn more about the Ivanpah solar power project, visit www.ivanpahsolar.com or www.brightsourceenergy.com/ivanpah-solar-project#.VCRv1fldWVM. Additional information on solar energy in general can be found on the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) website at www.seia.org.

Optics/Photonics in Health and Medicine

     In the late 1800s, the discovery of X-rays allowed the first glimpses into realms of the human body previously unseen with the human eye. Since that time optics and photonics have come to play a major role in the diagnosis, measurement and treatment of disease. From mammography to MRIs and from optical endoscopes to molecular diagnostics, products and processes incorporating optics and photonics have continued to be relevant in "creating opportunities for significant improvements in the quality of health care as well as for substantial reductions in the overall cost" (n23) of providing that care. The following is only a glimpse into some of the ways photonics and optics are used to improve health care, reduce costs and save lives:

     "In the emergency room, a patient experiencing chest pains or a severe headache almost invariably receives a high-resolution, three-dimensional computed tomography (CT) scan that assists in . . . [a] life-saving diagnosis. . . In the clinical laboratory, blood samples are analyzed using lasers and optical imaging to provide readings on a patient's immune and circulatory systems, and human genes are tested using photonics systems to determine if a patient has a predisposition to life-threatening diseases such as cancer . . . And, in the surgical suite, the pulse oximeter uses light to provide surgeons and anesthesiologists with precise and real-time readings of a patient's blood oxygen saturation levels to prevent brain damage; optical endoscopes provide surgeons a close-up view of organs; and laser surgery minimizes the size of the surgical incision, reducing trauma and infection while dramatically speeding recovery. Eye surgeons also commonly use lasers for vision correction surgery and eye doctors are using retinal imaging for sophisticated eye exams." (n24)

     Advances in health and medicine can come from both incremental improvements in existing technology incorporating optics and photonics as well as revolutionary new technologies. The video below discusses an improvement mammography screenings.

Optics/Photonics in Manufacturing

     Manufacturing/advanced manufacturing is a topic raised in both the National Academies report and National Photonics Initiative (NPI) white paper in several contexts: the manufacturing of products such as displays and solar cells, especially in the U.S. vs. overseas, the manufacturing of optical components, the use of applied photonics in manufacturing processes such as photolithography (used in making integrated circuits) and the many uses of lasers. Authors of the PNI white paper say of lasers that "as one of the most versatile machine tools of the 21st century, high-powered lasers are used by heavy industry to cut, weld, mark, surface treat and finely process nearly any conceivable material. From drilling holes in aircraft engine blades to welding sterile medical packages for pacemakers, lasers are efficient, cost-effective and produce the highest-quality products." (n25). Lasers are also an important component of what has come to be known as additive manufacturing.

     Say, for example, you are not operating a manufacturing facility but instead are a curator in a museum. You have a valuable vase which could be useful for educational programs, displays in other facilities or any number of other purposes. The vase, however is too fragile to travel far from the place in which it is housed at the museum. Instead of moving it, you create a three dimensional scan of the vase with a 3D laser scanner, which in turn is used to create a three dimensional computer model. That model can now be reproduced on what is known as a 3D printer, a machine which uses lasers and a base material to create the vase from the computer model, layer by layer, from the base layer to the top. The end product is a vase which, depending on the material, may look exactly like the original but can be reproduced as many times as necessary. If you can understand this, then you can begin to understand the concept of additive manufacturing.

     Additive manufacturing, which includes 3D printing, laser sintering and stereolithography, is "a process in which three dimensional objects of any shape or size can be produced from digital models through a layering process enabled by lasers." (n26) (The name distiguished is from what some might call subtractive manufacturing, or the extraction of a product from a block of material, something which creates waste in the form of the remaining material which is not used.) Though the technology is not at a stage to replace conventional manufacturing processes, it does offer several advantages. "Most notable . . . are the short time from computer-aided design (CAD) [to final product] . . . and the cost-effectiveness of low-volume production." (n27) "Furthermore, additive manufacturing allows for fabrication of many parts not feasible through other methods." (n28) Additional information on photonics and optics in manufacturing is available in both of the reports cited, and a very detailed tutorial on 3D printing can be accessed at http://computer.howstuffworks.com/3-d-printing.htm.

Optics/Photonics in Defense/National Security

     While cloaking and invisibility may be the realm of science fiction, the U.S. Air Force's B-2 Stealth bomber comes about as close as possible to being "invisible" to enemy radar and detection methods. The B-2 Stealth bomber's "low-observable, or 'stealth' characteristics give it the unique ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated defenses . . . The B-2's low observability is derived from a combination of reduced infrared, acoustic, electromagnetic, visual and radar signatures . . . mak[ing] it difficult for . . . sophisticated defensive systems to detect, track and engage to B-2 . . . [C]omposite materials, special coatings and flying-wing design all contribute to its 'stealthiness.'" (n29) (B-2 Spirit photo source: U.S. Air Force) Government research and military sites also are full of information involving projects incorporating optics and photonics in some way. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA, www.darpa.mil), for example, lists more than a half-dozen programs in its Microsystems Technology Office incorporating optics and photonics in research involving image reconstruction, ultraviolet technology, optical phased arrays and laser weapons, thermal imaging, photonic emitters, and optimzed photonics, among others.

     An explanation in the National Photonics Initiative white paper says of the relevance of optics and photonics to defense and national security that:

     "When U.S. soldiers step onto the battlefield, their safety and ability to effciently carry out their mission rests largely on optics and photonics technology. Soldiers carry night vision goggles to see in the dark; they use laser range finders and target designators to direct weapons precisely; they determine the location of hostile forces using high-resolution images acquired from pilotless, unmanned systems; and they utilize high-speed secure, optical communications to receive intelligence and data from control centers sometimes thousands of miles away." (n30)

Other uses of light-related technologies in Defense/National Security listed in the National Academies' report include remote sensing, precision laser machining, optical lithography for electronics, optical signal interconnects, solar power for remote energy needs, and the generation of a stable timebase for the Global Positioning System (GPS). (n31)

     It is not uncommon for technologies developed for government and/or military use to eventually find their way into commercial applications. ". . . The ability to produce and enhance images using [the computer] . . . received considerable impetus from the photographic explorations of space carried out by NASA in the 1960s. At first, computers enhanced photographs taken in space by satellites by eliminating imperfections or by transforming multiple views from varying perspectives into three-dimensional images. Eventually, digital cameras . . . were used to picture the most distant reaches of the solar system." (n32) Likewise, current developments of optics- and photonics-based technologies for defense and national security applications could eventually be commercialized for use in developing ". . . faster and more powerful computers and mobile devices; advanced medical imaging, diagnostics and treatments; enhanced environmental sensing, and lightweight and portable sources of renewable energy." (n33)

A World of Possibilities

     It is probably fitting that 2015 has been designated the International Year of Light and Light-Based Technologies, for there is truly a world of technolgies derived from or based on optics and photonics. Only the surface of that world has been scratched here in these paragraphs. For example, lasers are not only found in manufacturing, but in products we encounter on a daily basis. This includes everything from grocery store bar code scanners to Blu-ray Discs. (The name Blu-ray refers to the blue laser that is used to read from and record to a Blu-ray Disc. In comparison to a red laser as used in [standard] DVDs and CDs, a blue laser allows for a much higher density and hence larger storage capacity. (n34)) Laser light shows have become staples at many concerts and other entertainment events, but 3-D laser scanning and 3-D printing also may be entering music merchandising in a new way. It was recently reported that STARAMBA, a company specializing in 3-D body scanning and printing, would be heading out on tour this year with the band Linkin Park. As part of the tour merchandising, fans could "have themselves scanned for exclusive 3D selfies - mini statues - made of themselves, the band members, or even of themselves together with band members . . . [The product would be] a figurine at a scale of 1:20 up to 1:5 . .. delivered to [the fan's] . . . home by courier shortly after the concert experience." (n35) And 3D scanners may also be heading to the realms of museum conservation and scientific research as well, where scans could offer sophisticated methods of documenting everything from rare art pieces to prehistoric human skeletons. (n36)

     It is sometimes said that the inspiration for some of the most cutting-edge technologies can be found in the realm of science fiction, from laser weapons to replicators, but could it also be said that our world is starting to look a bit more like Star Trek every day? "The Star Trek television series 'The Next Generation' (broadcast 1987-1994) . . . [included] stories of a 'holodeck,' or holographic visualization room, in which a computer can reconstruct a virtual environment. In the 'Voyager' series (1995-2001), these imagined technologies are used to implement a sentient computer program acting as a virtual doctor." (n37) According to one New York Times reporter, "Some scientists and researchers say we could have something like holodecks by 2024 . . . [It] is all part of a quest by computer companies, Hollywood and video game makers to move entertainment closer to reality - or at least a computer-generated version of reality. Rather, than simply watch movies, as the thinking goes, we could become part of the story. We could see people and things moving around our living rooms. The actors could talk to us. [And] gamers who today slouch on the counch could step inside their games." (n38) That quest has moved a little closer to reality thanks to the Sunnyvale, California-based company A.M.D. The company has created and shown what it calls "Surround House 2: Monsters in the Orchestra," an immersive experience of sight and sound. In the "Monsters in the Orchestra" immersive environment, "Heterogeneous System Architecture (HSA) features enable full, 3D, 360 degree gesture control while AMD TrueAudio technology processes the 32.4 channels of audio in an unbelievable experience of original artwork and music. The environment is created through surround projection created in a completely enclosed 30' dome, enabled by the power of AMD Graphics Core Next (GCN) computer cores." (n39) You can read more about "Monsters in the Orchestra" immersive experience on the AMD company site at www.amd.com/en-us/innovations/software-technologies/surround-computing/surround-house. The notion of the holodeck has not escaped academic attention either, and the video below shows a wrap-around virtual reality screen where researchers can visualize data in three dimensions. Oh -- and if you're worried about hitting the walls as you walk around in your future 3-D immersive experience, don't. According to that same New York Times reporter, "The United States Army Research Laboratory . . . has created a floor called an 'omnidirectional treadmill' that enables people to seemingly wander around a room while the floor moves and the person stays in place." (n40) Happy trails to you, and thanks for visiting the Summer 2014 Essay section!

FOOTNOTES - The footnotes are indicated in the text in parentheses with the letter "n" and a number. If you click the asterisk at the end of the footnote, it will take you back to the paragraph in which the citation was located. One final video follows the footnote section. The video, "Optics - Light at Work," is an orientation to optics/photonics careers which is geared toward high school/college students.

n1 - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)/International Year of Light 2015, 2015: International Year of Light and Light-Based Technologies website, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.light2015.org. (*)

n2 - Committee on Optical Science and Engineering, Board on Physics and Astronomy, National Materials Advisory Board, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Applications, and Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems of the National Research Council, Harnessing Light: Optical Sciences and Engineering for the 21st Century, Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 1998, p. 5 (*)

n3 - 2015: International Year of Light and Light-Based Technologies website, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.light2015.org (*)

n4 - Rosenblum, Naomi, A World History of Photography, Third Edition, Washington D.C.: Abbeville Press, 1997, p. 15 (*)

n5 - Beeson, Steve and Mayer, James W. Patterns of Light: Chasing the Spectrum from Aristotle to LEDs, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 2008, pp. 10 - 11 (*)

n6 - ""The Great Picture" Goes on View at the National Air and Space Museum," Smithsonian Air and Space Museum press release, April 22, 2014, viewed online September 2014 at http://airandspace.si.edu/about/newsroom/release/?id=343 (*)

n7 - Rosenblum, A World History of Photography, pp. 630 - 631 (*)

n8 - Canon Science Lab - What is Light? "CMOS Sensors." Canon Global technology information page; viewed online September 2014 at http://www.canon.com/technology/s_labo/light-003/05.html (*)

n9 - Sorrel, Charlie, "Lytro Camera Lets You Focus Photos After You Take Them," WIRED Magazine online, 6/22/11, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.wired.com/2011/06/lytro-camera-lets-you-focus-photos-after-you-take-them (*)

n10 - Ibid. (*)

n11 - Honan, Mat, "Lytro's Magical DSLR-Like Camera Lets You Refocus Photos After You Take Them," WIRED Magazine online, 4/22/14, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.wired.com/2014/04/lytro-illum.htm (*)

n12 - U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 112th Edition, Washington D.C.: 1992, Table 889 - Cellular Telephone Industry, 1984 - 1991 (*)

n13 - U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 132th Edition, Washington D.C.: 2012, Table 1149 - Cellular Telecommunications Industry, 1990 - 2010 (*)

n14 - Committee on Harnessing Light: Capitalizing on Optical Science Trends and Challenges for Future Research, National Materials and Manufacturing Board, Division on Engineering Research and Physical Sciences, National Research Council of the National Academies, Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2012 (online pdf 2013, available at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13491), p. 13 (*)

n15 - Ibid., p. 64 (*)

n16 - Ibid., p. 13 (*)

n17 - Ibid., p. 64 (*)

n18 - Cisco Systems, Inc., The Zettabyte Era: Trends and Analysis, White Paper, FLGD 11684, San Jose, CA: Cisco Systems, Inc., June 2014, pp. 1 - 3. Available online and downloaded September 2014 from http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/VNI_Hyperconnectivity_WP.html (*)

n19 - National Research Council of the National Academies, Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, p. 74 (*)

n20 - Ibid., p. 72 (*)

n21 - Bright Source Energy, "Ivanpah Project Facts," Bright Source Energy, p. 2. Downloaded September 2014 from http://www.brightsourceenergy.com/ivanpah-solar-project.htm (*)

n22 - Ibid. p. 1 (*)

n23 - National Research Council of the National Academies, Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, p. 164(*)

n24 - National Photonics Initiative, Lighting the Path to a Competitive, Secure Future, White Paper, May 23, 2013, p. 25. Viewed online/downloaded September 2014 from http://www.lightourfuture.org (*)

n25 - Ibid., p. 5 (*)

n26 - Ibid., p. 7 (*)

n27 - National Research Council of the National Academies, Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, p. 213 (*)

n28 - National Photonics Initiative, Lighting the Path to a Competitive, Secure Future, p. 7 (*)

n29 - United States Air Force, B-2 Spirit press photos and Fact Sheet. Viewed online September 2014 at http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104482/b-2-spirit.aspx (*)

n30 - National Photonics Initiative, Lighting the Path to a Competitive, Secure Future, p. 15 (*)

n31 - National Research Council of the National Academies, Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, p. 104 (*)

n32 - Rosenblum, Naomi, A World History of Photography, Third Edition, p. 630 (*)

n33 - National Photonics Initiative, Lighting the Path to a Competitive, Secure Future, p. 15 (*)

n34 - Blu-ray Disc Association, Technical FAQs - History and Association, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.blue-raydisc.com/en/Technical/FAQs/HistoryandAssociation.aspx (*)

n35 - "STARAMBA on Tour With Linkin Park," news release, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/staramba-on-tour-with-linkin-park-270473061.html (*)

n36 - Kuzminsky, Susan C. and Gardiner, Megan S. "Three-dimensional Laser Scanning: Potential Uses for Museum Conservation and Scientific Research," Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol 39 (2012), p. 2744 (*)

n37 - Johnston, Sean F., "Historical Perspective: A Cultural History of the Hologram," Leonardo, Vol. 41, No. 3, p. 228 (*)

n38 - Bilton, Nick, "Disruptions: The Holodeck Begins to Take Shape," online blog version of New York Times article which appeared 1/27/2014 on page B5 of the New York edition. Viewed online September 2014 at http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/01/26/disruptions-the-holodeck-begins-to-take-shape/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0.htm (*)

n39 - A.M.D., "Surround House 2: Monsters in the Orchestra" website information page. Viewed online September 2014 at http://www.amd.com/en-us/innovations/software-technologies/surround-computing/surround-house (*)

n40 - Bilton, Nick, "Disruptions: The Holodeck Begins to Take Shape," online blog version of New York Times article which appeared 1/27/2014 on page B5 of the New York edition. Viewed online September 2014 at http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/01/26/disruptions-the-holodeck-begins-to-take-shape/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0.htm (*)

Optics: Light at Work. The video is geared toward high school and college students and offers information on careers in optical science/engineering.

LINKS LIST - The list of links external to the website found in the essay.

BIBLIOGRAPHY - The combined bibliography for the August and September "Illuminating Subject" essays is included below.

A.M.D., "Surround House 2: Monsters in the Orchestra" website information page. Viewed online September 2014 at http://www.amd.com/en/us/innovations/software-technologies/surround-computing/surround-house.htm.

Ball, Philip, "Nature's Color Tricks," Scientific American, Vol. 306, No. 5, May 2012, pp. 74 - 79.

Beeson, Steven and Mayer, James W., Patterns of Light: Chasing the Spectrum from Aristotle to LEDs, Washington D.C.: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 2008.

Berger, Melvin, Lights, Lenses and Lasers, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons: 1987.

Bilton, Nick, "Disruptions: The Holodeck Begins to Take Shape," online blog version of New York Times article which appeared 1/27/2014 on page B5 of the New York edition. Viewed online September 2014 at http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/01/26/disruptions-the-holodeck-begins-to-take-shape/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0.htm.

Blu-ray Disc Association, Technical FAQs - History and Association, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.blue-raydisc.com/en/Technical/FAQs/HistoryandAssociation.aspx.

Bright Source Energy. "Ivanpah Project Facts," Bright Source Energy, p. 2. Downloaded September 2014 from http://www.brightsourceenergy.com/ivanpah-solar-project.htm.

Canon Corp., Canon Science Lab - What is Light? "CMOS Sensors." Canon Global technology information page; viewed online September 2014 at http://www.canon.com/technology/s_labo/light-003/05.html.

Cisco Systems, Inc., The Zettabyte Era: Trends and Analysis, White Paper, FLGD 11684, San Jose, CA: Cisco Systems, Inc., June 2014, pp. 1 - 3. Available online and downloaded September 2014 from http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/VNI_Hyperconnectivity_WP.html.

Coke, Van Deren, One Hundred Years of Photographic History, Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, 1975.

Committee on Harnessing Light: Capitalizing on Optical Science Trends and Challenges for Future Research, National Materials and Manufacturing Board, Division on Engineering Research and Physical Sciences, National Research Council of the National Academies, Optics and Photonics: Essential Technologies for Our Nation, Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2012 (online pdf 2013, available at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13491).

Committee on Optical Science and Engineering, Board on Physics and Astronomy, National Materials Advisory Board, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Applications, and Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems of the National Research Council, Harnessing Light: Optical Sciences and Engineering for the 21st Century, Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 1998.

Ditchburn, R.W., Light, New York: Dover Publications, 1991.

Friedel, Robert and Israel, Paul, Edison's Electric Light, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1986.

Gardner, Robert. Science Projects: About Light, Hillside, New Jersey; Enslow Publishers, Inc., 1994.

Geng, Jason, "Three-dimensional Display Technologies," Advances in Optics and Photonics, Vol 5, 2013, pp. 456 - 535.

Hilbert, Martin and Lopez, Priscilla, "The World's Technological Capacity fo Store, Communicate and Compute Information," Science, Vol. 332, 1 April 2011, pp. 60 - 65.

Honan, Mat, "Lytro's Magical DSLR-Like Camera Lets You Refocus Photos After You Take Them," WIRED Magazine online, 4/22/14, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.wired.com/2014/04/lytro-illum.htm.

Hoy, Anne E., The Book of Photography, Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2005.

Johnston, Sean F., "Historical Perspective: A Cultural History of the Hologram," Leonardo, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 223 - 230.

Jonnes, Jill, Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse and the Race to Electify the World, New York: Random House, 2003.

Keller, Corey, editor, Brought to Light: Photography and the Invisible, 1840 - 1900, San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 2008.

Khan, M. Nisa, Understanding LED Illumination, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 2014.

Kirkland, Kyle, Ph.D., Light and Optics, New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2007.

Kuzminsky, Susan C. and Gardiner, Megan S., "Three-dimensional Laser Scanning: Potential Uses for Museum Conservation and Scientific Research," Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol 39 (2012), pp. 2744-2751.

Ludman, Jacques, Caulfield, H.John, and Riccobono, Juanita, Editors, Holography for the New Millenium, New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 2002.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Optics: Light, Color and Their Uses: An Educator's Guide with Activities in Science and Mathematics, EG-2000-10-64-MSFC, Huntsville, AL: NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, 2000.

National Photonics Initiative, Lighting the Path to a Competitive, Secure Future, White Paper, May 23, 2013, p. 25. Viewed online/downloaded September 2014 from http://www.lightourfuture.org.

Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), "Tesla: Life and Legacy - War of the Currents," online program text viewed August 2014 at http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_warcur.html

Quimby, Richard S., Photonics and Lasers: An Introduction, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2006.

Rosenblum, Naomi, A World History of Photography, Third Edition, New York: Abbeville Press, 1997.

Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, ""The Great Picture" Goes on View at the National Air and Space Museum," Smithsonian Air and Space Museum press release, April 22, 2014, viewed online September 2014 at http://airandspace.si.edu/about/newsroom/release/?id=343.

Sorrel, Charlie, "Lytro Camera Lets You Focus Photos After You Take Them," WIRED Magazine online, 6/22/11, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.wired.com/2011/06/lytro-camera-lets-you-focus-photos-after-you-take-them.

STARAMBA, "STARAMBA on Tour With Linkin Park," news release, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/staramba-on-tour-with-linkin-park-270473061.html.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)/International Year of Light 2015, 2015: International Year of Light and Light-Based Technologies website, viewed online September 2014 at http://www.light2015.org.

United States Air Force, B-2 Spirit press photos and Fact Sheet. Viewed online September 2014 at http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104482/b-2-spirit.aspx.

United States Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 112th Edition, Washington D.C.: 1992, Table 889 - Cellular Telephone Industry, 1984 - 1991.

United States Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 132th Edition, Washington D.C.: 2012, Table 1149 - Cellular Telecommunications Industry, 1990 - 2010.

Wands, Bruce, Art of the Digital Age, New York: Thames and Hudson, 2006.

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